I. JURISPRUDENTIAL BACKGROUND AND THEORETICAL QUESTIONS
Up to now, conventional worldwide regulation doesn't contemplate folks's environmental rights to a clear and wholesome setting to be a human proper. Jus cogens ("obligatory regulation") refers to prerogative authorized rules and norms which can be binding for all worldwide states, regardless of their consent. They don't seem to be to be delineated within the sense that states cannot make a reservation to treaty or home or worldwide legal guidelines that battle with worldwide agreements that they've assessed and to which they're social gathering. They "overcome worldwide agreements and different guidelines of worldwide regulation that battle with them ..." [and are] Modifications are solely attainable by way of a subsequent commonplace, which has the identical character. "(1) They're thus the axiomatic and universally acknowledged authorized norms that bind all nations beneath the Jus gentium (worldwide regulation) For instance, some United Nations Constitution Provisions and conventions towards slavery or torture are thought-about as norms of worldwide regulation by the contracting events of a world settlement aren't objectionable.
Whereas the worldwide authorized system has advanced to incorporate, and even codify, basic, non-divergent human rights, 2 the event of environmental laws has not progressed thus far. Whereas the previous have discovered a spot on the highest stage of typically acknowledged authorized rights, the latter have just lately achieved modest recognition as a regulated exercise throughout the financial system and sustainable improvement insurance policies, with nice resistance.
1. The worldwide group acknowledges the identical sources of worldwide regulation as the USA & # 39; Authorized system. The three sources of worldwide regulation are specified and outlined within the Restatement (Third) of the USA International Relations Regulation (R3dFRLUS), Part 102. The primary supply is the "Customary Worldwide Regulation" (CIL), outlined as "basic and constant" The apply of States adopted from a way of authorized obligation "(3) (Opinio juris sive necessitatus) and never an ethical obligation as well as, the CIL is violated when a state "encourages or encourages, for causes of state coverage () genocide, (b) slavery, (b) slavery (c) the homicide or disappearance of people (d) torture or in any other case merciless, inhuman or degrading therapy ... or (g) a constant sample of gross violations of internationally acknowledged human rights. "(4) The extent to which these human rights should be" internationally acknowledged "is just not clear, however actually a majority of the world's nations should acknowledge such rights earlier than a" constant sample of gross violations "results in a violation of the CIL "Buying and selling Process" or "Buying and selling Use" in Nationwide Enterprise Regulation.
Proof for CIL consists of "constitutional, legislative, and govt directives of states, proclamations, courtroom choices, arbitration awards, letters from worldwide regulation specialists, worldwide treaties, and resolutions and suggestions from worldwide conferences and organizations." (5) It follows that such proof is enough to guard 'internationally acknowledged human rights' by a typically acknowledged worldwide regulation. Thus, CIL will be created by way of the overall dissemination of authorized recognition (opinionio juris) and thru actions by states which can be exactly "internationally acknowledged human rights".
2. The following stage of binding worldwide regulation is that of worldwide treaties or worldwide regulation. Simply because the rights and authorized norms of the Jus cogens and the CIL are precedence and universally binding authorized norms, so worldwide treaties represent a binding worldwide regulation for the social gathering members who've evaluated this treaty. The identical means as some states & # 39; nationwide constitutional regulation declares the elemental human rights of the residents of each state, and so worldwide treaties create a binding proper with respect to the rights set forth therein in line with the standard worldwide Jus-Gentium precept of pacta sunt servanda (agreements needs to be noticed). Contracts are in flip legally internalized by the home authorized system. For instance, the supply of the United Nations Constitution towards the Use of Drive is binding worldwide regulation for all States, and it's, for instance, binding regulation in the USA and its residents. (6) Contracts correspond to "contracts" within the nationwide authorized system.
In fact, proof of standard worldwide regulation additionally consists of contracts and associated materials that's interpreted beneath the standard design guidelines by referring to the textual content itself and the phrases & # 39; peculiar meanings. [7] Typical regulation usually must be interpreted within the context of CIL. (8) In apply, contracts are sometimes modified by adjustments, protocols and (principally technical) annexes. There are mechanisms for "avoidance of strict consent" by the social gathering states. Basically, these mechanisms embrace "framework or umbrella conventions that particularly outline basic obligations and set the equipment for different standards-making units ... particular person protocols that set particular content material obligations ... [and] technical attachments. "(9) Most of those new devices" don't require ratification, however come into drive in a simplified means. "(10) For instance, they could solely require signatures or could also be efficient for all authentic events if: a The minimal variety of states which have ratified the modification or the minimal variety of states which haven't any objections inside a given time frame will likely be Strengthen or enter into drive for all besides those that object. (11) Relying on the contract itself, this is not going to be crucial after the essential consensus has been reached, so that every one of them could conform to make sure adjustments efficient. "[I] these are examples of an IGO (that means[international governmental organization]]Organ & # 39; Laws & # 39; straight for [s] did it. "(12)
3. Lastly, the foundations of worldwide regulation are additionally derived from the overall rules of regulation widespread to "the nice authorized programs of the world". 13 These "basic rules of regulation" are authorized rules as such, not worldwide regulation itself. Whereas many regard these basic rules as a secondary supply of worldwide regulation, which can be used "as supplementary guidelines" (14), (14) they had been thought-about on the idea of formal equality with the 2 positivist components of customized and of the state (15) Examples are the rules of authorized drive, justice, justice and the double, usually derived from "analogy with nationwide regulation on procedural guidelines, proof and case regulation." (16) Nonetheless, there are strict limits to relapse due to the attribute variations between worldwide regulation and home regulation. "17 Proof of basic authorized rules consists of" municipal legal guidelines, doctrine and judicial choices. "(18)
Contractual provisions and their inherent obligations could create binding CILs in the event that they "have a basic commonplace of norms that could possibly be thought-about as the idea of a basic rule of regulation". (19) A fundamental premise of this text is that the "comparatively unique (legislative) pathways of the previous aren't acceptable for present circumstances". (20) Jonathan Charney argues that at this time's CIL is an increasing number of created by consensual multilateral fora moderately than state apply and judicial perception, and that "
A consensus, outlined because the absence of specific objections by the contributors to the rule, can usually be sufficient ... Theoretically, a clearly worded and agreed declaration on a near-universal diplomatic discussion board could possibly be sufficient to create a brand new worldwide regulation. "(21) Conceptually, this course of needs to be understood as" basic worldwide regulation "moderately than CIL, because the Worldwide Court docket of Justice (ICJ) has usually completed.[ConsensusdefinedasthelackofexpressedobjectionstotherulebyanyparticipantmayoftenbesufficientIntheoryoneclearlyphrasedandstronglyagreeddeclarationatanear-universaldiplomaticforumcouldbesufficienttoestablishnewinternationallaw"(21)Thisprocessshouldbeunderstoodconceptuallyas"generalinternationallaw"ratherthanCILastheInternationalCourtofJustice(ICJ)hasoftendone[ConsensusdefinedasthelackofexpressedobjectionstotherulebyanyparticipantmayoftenbesufficientIntheoryoneclearlyphrasedandstronglyagreeddeclarationatanear-universaldiplomaticforumcouldbesufficienttoestablishnewinternationallaw"(21)Thisprocessshouldbeunderstoodconceptuallyas"generalinternationallaw"ratherthanCILastheInternationalCourtofJustice(ICJ)hasoftendone
Likewise, Professor Gunther Handl argues that every one multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) of "international applicability" create "basic worldwide regulation":
"A multilateral treaty that addresses the elemental issues of the worldwide group and is strongly supported by the overwhelming majority of states, worldwide organizations and different transnational actors as such - and naturally that is the biodiversity, local weather and ozone regime could, inter alia, elevate expectations of compliance with basic provisions, briefly, such a contract could also be thought-about as a authorized commonplace of basic applicability ... and as such should be capable of create rights and rights obligations each for third nations in addition to for third-party organizations. "(22)
However, Daniel Bodansky argues that CIL is so not often supported by authorities measures that it's not a standard regulation in any respect. "Worldwide environmental requirements don't mirror how states behave frequently, however how states speak to one another." 23 He describes such a regulation as a "declarative regulation" that's a part of a "fantasy" that represents the collective beliefs and "verbal apply" of states, concluding that "our time and efforts are higher for implementation utilized to basic worldwide requirements. " Environmental relations to concrete contracts and actions. "(24)
Nonetheless, a overview of the present standing of worldwide human rights and environmental regulation can present perception into the mechanisms by which environmental rights are raised to the extent of authorized safety rights. For instance, the United Nations Conference on the Regulation of the Sea (UNCLOS), began in 1972 and signed in 1982, was cited by most nations on the time of its entry into drive in 1994 as CIL. (25)
II. CURRENT STATUS OF RIGHTS ON HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT No State will publicly state at this time that it's inside its sovereign proper to break its home setting, not to mention the worldwide group, however most states don't assure environmental safety as a basic human proper. At current, environmental regulation primarily consists of standard worldwide regulation and a few CIL. The primary pertains to specific consent and the opposite to implicit consent, except a state takes benefit of the precept of persistent objection, whereby it itself is just not sure to most CILs. In contrast to human rights and worldwide crimes, there isn't a basic environmental tribunal at this time. Whereas the Regulation of the Sea Tribunal and different UN fora (eg the ICJ) exist for circumstances of breaches of contract, non-contract particular violations presently haven't any worldwide jurisdiction. Italian Supreme Court docket Justice Amedeo Postiglione explains that
"[T] The human proper to the setting will need to have a particular protecting organ at worldwide stage for a particular authorized and political cause: The setting is just not a proper of a state, however of the person and cannot be successfully protected by the Worldwide Court docket of Justice The judiciary in The Hague is essentially the most prevalent financial pursuits of states and present establishments are sometimes linked to the human proper to the setting. "(26)
In fact, home treatments must be continued first, however NGOs, people and states could be acknowledged if these treatments proved futile or "the dispute raises problems with worldwide significance". (27) Though the ICJ has, for instance, an "environmental chamber" and US courts usually designate "particular masters" for all these disputes, it's clear that recognizing human rights to the setting requires a world courtroom to personal such a proper acknowledge and take care of worldwide violations effectively and equitably. (28)
III. THE JUS-COGENS TYPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS Are the states or the worldwide group as a complete obliged to take measures to stop and safeguard environmental hazards, no matter contractual obligations and nationwide environmental rules?
Human rights are "entitlements" that come up "by rights" 31 and are unbiased of any exterior justification. They're "self-evident" and basic to anybody who leads a dignified, wholesome, productive and rewarding life. As Louis Henkin factors out:
"Human rights aren't summary, resonant," good ", they're outlined, sure calls for are made in worldwide devices just like the [UN's] Common Declaration of Human Rights and the Principal Treaties and Conventions. -His [sic], Dignity and success, and that displays a standard sense of justice, equity and decency. [No longer are human rights treated as grounded in or justified by utilitarianism, natural law, ... social contract, or any other political theory ... [but] be derived from accepted rules or demanded by accepted social objectives corresponding to peace and justice; particular person objectives corresponding to human dignity, happiness, success. [Like the fundamental rights guaranteed by the US Constitution, these rights are] inalienable and untouchable; They cannot be transferred, forfeited or canceled. They cannot be misplaced by way of usurpation or failure to train or implement them. "(32)
Henkin distinguishes between "immunity claims" (corresponding to "the state cannot do X for me", the hallmark of the US constitutional system) and "useful resource claims" (like "I've one") proper on J & # 39;), in order that the person has the fitting, for instance freedom of expression, "meals, shelter and different fundamental human wants". (33) In at this time's "international village", the fitting to a wholesome setting is clearly a "useful resource demand" and a fundamental human want that goes past nationwide borders.
In keeping with RG Ramcharan, there may be "a strict obligation ..." to guard the setting from the potential risks of financial improvement by taking efficient motion by states and your entire worldwide group as a complete. (34) His viewpoint is that the human proper to life is one. jus cogens, a non-deviant peremptorist norm that naturally consists of the fitting to a clear setting. This obligation is clearly outlined in multilateral treaties such because the United Nations Conference on Desertification, the United Nations Framework Conference on Local weather Change and the Conference on Organic Variety. 35 It's set out within the Stockholm, Rio and Copenhagen statements as a core aspect of the sustainable improvement precept. It varieties the idea for the financial improvement agreements of NAFTA, WTO, WTO and the European Union in addition to for the European Conference and the Worldwide Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) from most nations of the world, together with the USA.
The human proper to a wholesome setting is explicitly included within the inter-American and African charters and within the structure of greater than 50 nations worldwide. Regardless of whether or not it's based mostly on treaties, CILs or "founding rules", the worldwide group's dedication to the setting is now clearly outlined and enforceable by worldwide courts. For instance, the Lhaka Honhat Amid Curiae letter acknowledged the rights of the indigenous peoples of Argentina to "an setting that helps bodily and psychological well-being and improvement". 36 In a separate determination, the Inter-American Fee on Human Rights confirmed the Yanomani's proper in Brazil to a wholesome and clear setting. 37 At a worldwide stage, the UN Human Rights Committee has said that environmental injury "is a violation of the fitting to life contained in Article 6 (1) of the Directive [ICCPR]"(38)
The duty of states to take erga omnes efficient measures to guard the setting is at this time an obligation that no state can escape or ignore. If so, there's a threat that worldwide courts will likely be prosecuted and take measures which can be in keeping with their accountability to guard their share of the "International Commons". Apparently sufficient, after the Second World Warfare, the Jus Cogens idea advanced in response to the widespread perception that states' sovereignty prevented them from violating the so-called CILs of the time. In keeping with Black's Regulation Dictionary, "there's a shut connection between Jus Cogens and the popularity of a public coverage of the worldwide group" ... with out using Jus Cogens [ICJ] implied its existence when it was reported to the obligations erga omnes in its jurisdiction ... within the case of Barcelona. "(39)
IV. HUMAN RIGHTS OF THE THIRD GENERATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT Environmental safety is an obligation of Erga Omnes, d. H. A dedication of the worldwide group as a complete as a result of it's a human proper?
In a separate opinion on the case of Gebecikovo-Nagymaros (Hungary v. Slovakia), Justice Weeramantry, Vice-President of the Worldwide Court docket of Justice, defined the authorized foundation for sustainable improvement as a basic precept of worldwide regulation. He concludes that environmental safety is a common authorized norm of erga omnes, which is each CIL and basic authorized precept. In Gebecikovo, which is claimed to have been selected the deserves of the contract on the development of energy vegetation alongside the Danube and by customary worldwide regulation, the ICJ has dominated that the fitting to improvement should be balanced with the fitting to environmental safety by the precept of sustainable Growth. The idea of sustainable improvement has turn out to be a authorized precept even with no particular Treaty provision, which is "an integral precept of contemporary worldwide regulation". (40)
Sustainable improvement can also be acknowledged in authorities apply, for instance within the Dublin Declaration of the European Council on Environmental Safety. (41) This raised sustainable improvement at CIL stage.
For instance, the Martens clause of the 1996 Hague Conference on the Adherence to the Legal guidelines and Customs of Land Warfare 1996 by Choose Shahabudeen of the Worldwide Court docket of Justice was interpreted because the authorized foundation for informing the overriding rulers of behavior and contract in "Rules of Humanity and the Commandment of the general public conscience ". (42) In keeping with Weeramantry, "an obligation such because the obligation to guard the setting is so nicely accepted that every one residents act upon it" is that obligation a part of the authorized system in query ... as basic authorized rules adopted by the civilized nations. "(43)
Sustainable improvement is a stability between financial improvement and environmental safety. Simply as financial improvement is an inalienable proper of states & # 39; Self-determination, environmental safety is a dedication of all states for the good thing about world communities, which all have in widespread. "The precept of sustainable improvement is that a part of trendy worldwide regulation not solely due to its inevitable logical necessity, but additionally due to its broad and common acceptance by the world group," and never solely by creating nations. (44)
Ranging from the wealthy historical past of various cultures & # 39; Authorized programs and what he calls "residing regulation" level out to Choose Weeramantry that conventional respect for nature has been an ethical and authorized precept for financial improvement by way of historical past. The ICJ has additionally adopted these rules in earlier choices corresponding to Barcelona Traction, Gentle and Energy Firm, Ltd. (Belgium v. Spain) in 1972. 45 Choose Weeramantry concludes that the "deep-rooted values of each civilization are the supply from which." his authorized phrases derive ... [and that environmental protection is] among the many authentic and common values that require worldwide recognition. "(46)
The primary technology of human rights was declared within the "mushy regulation" of the Common Declaration of Human Rights: "Everybody has the fitting to freedom and safety of the individual." Artwork. 3. It was based mostly on the US Invoice of Rights and the American Declaration of Independence. This has additionally been mirrored within the binding ICCPR ("Everyone has the inherent proper to life", ICCPR, Artwork. 6 (1) (1966)), which has ratified the US, and the US American Conference on Political and Civil Rights Inter-American system (which establishes direct hyperlinks between human rights and environmental rights).
The second technology of human rights emerged from the financial, social and cultural rights (ECOSOC) established in treaties such because the Worldwide Covenant on Financial, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, which was not ratified by the US) and plenty of different states (39). Constitutions (eg Germany, Mexico and Costa Rica). These embrace the fitting to free selection of labor, schooling (often free), recreation, leisure time, and so forth. With this excessive stage of satisfaction in Europe, these rights have been prolonged by the EU in its European Social Constitution (1961), which has created an excessive amount of laws had been designed to guard staff, ladies and youngsters.
The third and present technology of human rights emerged from the eco-peace feminist motion. These embrace the fitting to improvement, the fitting to a safe setting and the fitting to peace. This third technology of rights is actually involved with the issue of poverty as a social (and thus legally reparable) evil that's on the middle of environmental issues and violations. The "Environmental Justice" motion receives circumstances that present that air pollution is disproportionately widespread in smaller communities at native or worldwide stage. The authors John Cronin and Robert F. Kennedy jr. Have their examine on air pollution alongside the Hudson River The Riverkeeper: Two activists are struggling to regain the environment as a fundamental human proper. (47) This predominantly US motion focuses on "environmental racism" as a way to hunt remedial motion or disproportionate air pollution of minority communities as a violation of present civil rights legal guidelines by "exploration"
,
using nations & # 39; Environmental legal guidelines to guard the rights of the poor. "(48)
V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT, COMMITMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A RIGHT: THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL AS A MODEL FOR CONSENSUS CONSTRUCTION A very powerful mechanisms for the institution of a binding worldwide regulation are the popularity of a dedication or a proper, the obligation to guard it and efficient enforcement strategies. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is the "most vital precedent in worldwide regulation for coping with international environmental conflicts". 49 It serves as a mannequin for a lot of different environmental points that require decision-making within the face of scientific uncertainty, international non-consensus constructing, and excessive injury avoidance prices. It was the primary worldwide "precautionary settlement" coping with a worldwide environmental downside, if not even "measurable proof of environmental injury was exhausted". (50) Though it has been instructed by scientists within the early 1970's that ozone depletion by chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs) and different ozone depleting substances (ODS) and related hormones of overexposure to dangerous ultraviolet radiation was suspected by scientists in 1985 and 1995 Vienna Conference for the safety of the ozone layer that worldwide measures have been taken to sort out the issue.
The Vienna Conference for the Safety of the Ozone Layer On the time of the Vienna Conference, the US accounted for greater than 50% of world CFC consumption in an aerosol gas market price US $ Three billion. General, CFC merchandise represented a market of $ 20 billion and in America alone a few quarter of 1,000,000 jobs. [51] The clear air adjustments of 1977 and the EPA ban of 1978 for all "non-essential" makes use of of CFCs in aerosol propellants have been quickly adopted internationally by comparable bans in Sweden, Canada and Norway. [52] These measures had been a direct response to client stress and the market wants of recent inexperienced shoppers. Creating nations have additionally been supplied incentives to "prime up" with acceptable reductions. (54)
Incentives for inventive certification, together with the duty to ratify solely eleven out of two-thirds of CFC producer nations and to place the treaty into drive. Due to this flexibility, innovation, consensus and cooperation, the Montreal Protocol was seen as a significant achievement in worldwide diplomacy and worldwide environmental regulation. At this time, virtually each nation on the planet is a member (over 175 states).
THE LONDON ADJUSTMENTS AND CHANGES OF 1990 Till 1990, the scientific affirmation of world warming and the depletion of the ozone layer led to the London changes and additions. Once more, US corporations corresponding to Dupont, IBM and Motorola responded to the huge adverse media consideration and promised to stop full manufacturing by 2000.
Non-compliance procedures have been made much more user-friendly. No sanctions had been imposed on a rustic that didn't attain quotas in good religion. The know-how switch occurred "pretty and cheaply", with the industrialized nations taking up the management of the creating nations within the achievement of compliance. 56 The US launched "ozone-depleting taxes", which contributed to higher compliance and promoted the exploration of CFC options. 57 To underline the far-reaching enforcement mechanisms, it needs to be famous that in early 1998 the US Division of Justice had prosecuted 62 folks and seven corporations for unlawful smuggling within the rising CFC black markets. For the reason that worldwide battle towards the FBI, the EPA, the CIA and Interpol within the international Operation Breeze police motion, 5-10,000 tons have been smuggled to Miami in Miami alone, second solely to cocaine smuggling. 58 In 1992, the Copenhagen amendments required that every State Celebration (which practiced the entire world) introduce "procedures and institutional mechanisms" to find out non-compliance and enforcement. (59)
VI. CONCLUSION: CRITICAL DIFFICULTY OF THE CURRENT SYSTEM AND THE LEGAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE RIGHT TO HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT AS BASIC HUMAN RIGHTS
The essential weaknesses of the prevailing system embrace self-explanatory statements of non-compliant states, the shortage of efficient enforcement mechanisms, political constraints corresponding to state sovereignty and discretion, and the absence of a basic consensus on the essential terminology of human rights points and their enforcement can ignore (sporadic circumstances of torture, occasional "disappearance") and keep away from the decrees of human rights courtroom choices, there will be no efficient system for implementing worldwide human rights. At current, a state that doesn't, like a state, corresponding to in Yugoslavia and Rwanda, interact in such outrageous acts that have an effect on world peace, can usually escape its tasks beneath worldwide human rights treaties.
There are few worldwide treaties that permit common jurisdiction for his or her violation by a state of the world. All CILs are, by their nature, practicable beneath common jurisdiction. "Crimes towards humanity" (eg warfare crimes, genocide and state-sponsored torture) are typically thought-about to be common jurisdiction, usually on the Worldwide Court docket of Justice, advert hoc warfare crimes tribunals and the brand new Worldwide Prison Court docket.
Whereas there are design flaws, it's not inconceivable that the fitting to a wholesome setting will be derived from present worldwide environmental agreements and the CIL. Auf der Vertragsebene scheint der Schutz der Umwelt für die internationale Gemeinschaft von größter Bedeutung zu sein. Auf der Ebene der CIL gibt es viele Hinweise darauf, dass das Recht auf eine gesunde Umwelt bereits ein worldwide geschütztes Recht ist, zumindest was die grenzüberschreitende Verschmutzung anbelangt. In jedem Fall scheint es allgemein anerkannt zu sein, dass es als Recht geschützt werden sollte. Der Eindruck ist, dass diesbezüglich ein eindeutiger Konsens besteht. "Delicate regulation" wird mit der Zeit zu CIL.
Die Weltkommission der Vereinten Nationen für Umwelt und Entwicklung hat die Erdcharta 1987 veröffentlicht. Sie ist noch nicht vollständig auf globaler Ebene umgesetzt worden. Zu den breiten Themen gehören Respekt und Sorge für die Umwelt, ökologische Integrität, soziale und wirtschaftliche Gerechtigkeit und Demokratie, Gewaltfreiheit und Frieden. [60] Das Argument kann inzwischen vorgebracht werden, der Umweltschutz hat die Schwelle des Völkergewohnheitsrechts erreicht. Was auch immer die Nationen der Welt wählen, um das Recht auf eine gesunde Umwelt als rechtmäßiges Menschenrecht anzuerkennen, wird vom nahezu universellen Konsens und dem politischen Willen der meisten Nationen der Welt abhängen. Bis dahin, solange das menschliche Leben weiterhin von "menschenrechtsratifizierenden" Nationen zerstört wird, bleibt abzuwarten, wie viel Zwangsmaßnahmen gegen Verstöße gegen Umweltgesetze eingesetzt werden wird, wenn das Recht auf eine gesunde Umwelt nicht als grundlegendes Menschenrecht gewahrt wird . Es bedarf der Zusammenarbeit aller Nationen, um sicherzustellen, dass dies zu einem unwiderruflichen, unveräußerlichen Recht wird, das als unverzichtbar für das Recht auf Leben anerkannt wird.
1. Restatement (Third) des International Relations Gesetzes der Vereinigten Staaten, § 102 cmt. ok (1987).
Die Elemente finden sich auch im Wiener Übereinkommen, Artikel 53.
2. Zum Beispiel das Recht auf Leben, frei von Folter, Genozid und Mord zu sein.
3. R (3d) FRLUS § 102 (l) (a) und cmt. H.
4. Id., § 702 (meine Betonung).
5. Mark W. Janis, Eine Einführung in das Völkerrecht 6 (3. Auflage, Aspen Regulation & Enterprise 1999).
6. R3dFRLUS § 102 (2).
7. Janis, oben.
8. David Hunter, et al., Worldwide Environmental Regulation and Coverage, p. 306 (2. Auflage, Basis Press 2002).
9. Paul Szasz, Worldwide Norm Making, in Edith Brown Weiss, Hrsg., UMWELTWECHSEL IM INTERNATIONALEN RECHT (1995), zitiert in Id, p. 307.
10. Id.
11. Id.
12. Id.
13. R3dFRLUS § 102 (l) (c), wie in Donoho, aaO, dargestellt.
14. Oben, R3dFRLUS, § 102 (4).
15. Shabtai Rosenne, Praxis und Methoden des Völkerrechts 69 (1984), zitiert in Hunter, Id, p. 317.
16. Hunter, supra, p. 316 (Basis Press 2002).
17. Id, p. 316.
18. Janis, aaO, p. 29
19. Id, p. 312.
20. Jonathan Charney, Common Worldwide Regulation, 87.J.Int.L.L. 529, 543–48 (1993), zitiert in Hunter, aaO, p. 322.
21. Id.
22. Gunther Handl, das gesetzliche Mandat multilateraler Entwicklungsbanken als Vermittler für den Wandel hin zu einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung, 92.J.Int.l.L. 642, 660-62 (1998), zitiert in Hunter, aaO, p. 324.
23. Daniel Bodansky, Gewohnheit (und nicht so üblich) Internationales Umweltrecht, 3. Ind. J. International Authorized Stud. 105, 110-119 (1995), zitiert in Hunter, Id.
24. Id.
25. Id, p. 659.
26. Amedeo Postiglione, Die globale Umweltkrise: Die Notwendigkeit und ein internationaler Umweltgerichtshof, ICEF INTERNATIONAL REPORT, 33-36 (1996), zitiert in Hunter, aaO, p. 495.
27. Id., P. 496.
28. Id.
29. Id, p. 1298.
30. Id, p. 1299.
31. L. Henkin, "Die Menschenrechtsidee", Das Zeitalter der Rechte (nachgedruckt in Henkin et al., Human Rights, 1999), wie in Donoho, s.o. 14-16.
32. Id.
33. Id.
34. Das Recht auf Leben, p. 310 (Den Haag, 1983), zitiert in Hunter, aaO, p. 1297.
35. Hunter, supra, p. 341.
36. Id, p. 1299.
37. Id, p. 1294.
38. Id, p. 1295.
39. Black's Regulation Dictionary, p. 864. (West 1999).
40. Hunter, supra, p. 339-341.
41. Id, footnotes 1 by way of 6, pp. 341-342.
42. Id, pp. 317-318.
43. Id, p. 345.
44. Id, p. 342.
45. Id, p. 315.
46. Id, p. 344.
47. Specifically, see pages 35, 38, 159, 162, 177-199 and 221 (Scribner 1997).
48. New York Regulation Journal, January 1993, Friday, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, p. 3. See additionally, DISCUSSION: REFLECTIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE, 65 Alb. L. Rev. 357, 2001.
49. Hunter, supra, p. 526.
50. Id, p. 527, quoting Richard Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy 2 (1998)
51. Id, p. 532.
52. Id, p. 535.
53. Id, p. 542.
54. Id, p. 545.
55. Id.
56. Id, p. 550-54.
57. Id, p. 562.
58. Id, p. 559.
59. Id, p. 566-67.
60. Roland Huber, Worldwide Environmental Regulation Seminar: Human Rights and the Setting, p. 24, in Donoho, Douglas L., INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS (printed by the Shepard Brad Regulation Middle, Nova Southeastern College, 2002).
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